The following stigma-related interventions were conducted in this state.
Acceptance and Commitment (Compassion-Based) Group Therapy
Study & Intervention Summary
The study aimed to assess the feasibility, acceptability, and usefulness of an HIV-related stigma-reducing group intervention based on Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) combined with Compassion-Focused Therapy (CFT) techniques. The intervention was conducted in a community mental health setting with five HIV-positive gay or bisexual men. It focused on reducing self-stigma by enhancing psychological flexibility and compassion.
The aim of the article is to test the feasibility of AWARENESS, a 9-session cognitive-behavioral intervention designed to address intersectional minority stress and stigma among sexual minority men living with HIV who use substances. The intervention focuses on psychoeducation and coping strategies for discrimination, concealment, and internalized stigma, and aims to address substance use, mood, and anxiety. The study found that the intervention was feasible with high completion rates.
The intervention, Connect to Protect (C2P), aims to advance structural changes to reduce adolescents' risk of HIV exposure by improving access to health information, condoms, and HIV testing. It involves community coalitions led by adolescent medicine clinical units and technical support staff, with objectives such as eliminating parental consent requirements for HIV testing, increasing access to adolescent-friendly HIV testing, and creating safe zones for at-risk adolescents. The intervention assesses the impact of these changes on health behaviors through annual data collection from adolescents over a 4 to 5 year period.
Connect-to-Protect (C2P) (individual health behavior outcomes)
Study & Intervention Summary
The Connect-to-Protect (C2P) intervention is a 10-year community mobilization effort aimed at creating structural changes to reduce HIV exposure among at-risk youth. It involves establishing coalitions that select and implement structural change objectives to improve the local risk environment for targeted youth populations. The intervention targets local policies, practices, and resource availability to reduce risk among youth, focusing on populations such as YMSM, injecting drug users, and high-risk young women of color. The evaluation used an observational study design due to the impracticality of a randomized controlled trial.
The study assesses the 12-month efficacy of a 6-month digital HIV care navigation intervention called Health eNav. Health eNav is a text message-based intervention that connects young people living with HIV to their own HIV care navigator. It aims to improve engagement in HIV primary care by addressing HIV care navigation, health promotion, motivational interviewing, and social support. The intervention strengthens provider-patient relationships, eliminates barriers to care, and increases care efficiency and quality. It also provides community resource linkages, promotes self-management, and offers clinical decision support and proactive care.
The Healthy Choices intervention aims to reduce HIV-related stigma among youth living with HIV (YLWH) by addressing alcohol use and promoting antiretroviral medication adherence. It is delivered by community health workers in various settings over four face-to-face sessions using Motivational Enhancement Therapy, an adaptation of Motivational Interviewing. The intervention seeks to improve health outcomes and reduce stigma by promoting non-judgmental communication and adapting provider communication styles.
The intervention aims to inform new strategies for engaging African American and Black and Latino YMSM and transgender and gender minority youth in HIV prevention and care continua by examining minority-related stress and intersectional identities. It involves longitudinal data collection to understand developmental transitions and trajectories in drug use, STIs, HIV infection, health, and mental health comorbidities, with the goal of developing gender-specific and age-appropriate prevention efforts.
Stigma Type Addressed
Internalized, Anticipated, Structural
Study Population - Recipients
General (At risk of HIV), MSM, Transgender/Gender Diverse Individuals
The aim of the article is to examine HIV disclosure practices to family and intersectional stigma among Latino sexual minority men (LSMM) of Mexican and Puerto Rican origin with HIV in the USA. The intervention aimed to identify, link, and retain these individuals in HIV care through navigation services that addressed disclosure practices and stigma management. The interventions were implemented at nine demonstration sites and included specific curricula and informal conversations to support disclosure readiness and manage stigma.
HIV opt-out screening intervention by Mahajan et al. (2016)
Study & Intervention Summary
This study used a quasi-experimental design to assess whether opt-out screening increases HIV test acceptance among patients with HIV/AIDS-related stigma concerns compared to opt-in screening, implementing three HIV screening models (physician-initiated opt-out, nurse-initiated opt-in, nurse-initiated opt-out) in two Los Angeles clinics over 6 months.
Stigma Type Addressed
Perceived
Study Population - Recipients
General (Everyone)
Intervention Level
Organizational (healthcare, school)
Intervention Setting Addressed
Community (Faith-based organizations, barber shops, etc)
HIV sermon intervention in African American and Latino churches by Payán et al. (2019)
Study & Intervention Summary
The intervention aimed to reduce HIV stigma and promote testing by embedding health messages into sermons in three churches (Latino Catholic, Latino Pentecostal, and African American Baptist) in Los Angeles County. The intervention included an HIV sermon guide with stigma reduction cues and HIV testing messages, as well as HIV education and peer leader workshops and on-site HIV testing events. The goal was to leverage clergy's social influence to promote positive norms around HIV and increase testing among congregants.
Stigma Type Addressed
Not Specified
Study Population - Recipients
Clergy
Intervention Level
Community
Intervention Setting Addressed
Community (Faith-based organizations, barber shops, etc)
HIV/STD-focused motion comic intervention by Willis et al. (2018)
Study & Intervention Summary
The study evaluated the effectiveness of a six-episode motion comic series in improving HIV/STD-related knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral intentions among young people aged 15-24. The intervention aimed to reduce HIV/STD risk by delivering health messages through engaging narratives and characters. It was developed through focus groups and used an 80% to 20% entertainment-to-education ratio. The study found significant improvements in HIV stigma reduction, HIV knowledge increase, and behavioral intentions to engage in safe sex.
The study aimed to assess the feasibility and acceptability of using social networking for HIV prevention discussions and to explore the relationship between these discussions and requests for HIV testing kits. The intervention involved creating a secret Facebook group where peer leaders posted HIV-related content to facilitate discussions among men who have sex with men (MSM). Participants were randomly assigned to either an HIV intervention group or a control group, with the intervention group receiving peer-led HIV prevention information over 12 weeks. Participants could engage in discussions and request a free home-based HIV testing kit during the intervention.
Interactive harm reduction pre-clerkship lecture intervention for medical students by Janku et al. (2023)
Study & Intervention Summary
The intervention is an interactive lecture on harm reduction for second-year medical students at the California University of Science and Medicine. The aim is to educate students about harm reduction and address stigma towards persons who use injection drugs (PWID). The lecture includes presentations, group discussions, and video critiques, with pre- and post-surveys to measure attitude changes. It was developed in collaboration with Inland Empire Harm Reduction (IEHR).
The study aimed to pilot test and evaluate "La Familia," a 12-session HIV prevention program for Latino immigrant MSM. The program uses a Freirean approach, focusing on sexual orientation, family acceptance, stigma, and HIV prevention. It emphasizes participant engagement and empowerment, building on existing skills and resilience factors, particularly for those who have made progress in developing their sexual identity.
The study assessed the efficacy of a participatory PhotoVoice-informed stigma reduction training program for health care workers. The intervention consisted of a one-time 2-hour training session with three parts: education on HIV stigma, PhotoVoice reflections by women of color living with HIV, and a workshop to address stigma. The control group received an electronic presentation on HIV/AIDS and stigma. The intervention aimed to increase knowledge of HIV/AIDS, improve attitudes towards PLWH, and increase awareness of enacted HIV stigma.
Stigma Type Addressed
Enacted
Study Population - Recipients
General (PLHIV), Healthcare Providers/Staff
Intervention Level
Organizational (healthcare, school)
Intervention Setting Addressed
Healthcare
PrEPTECH
Study & Intervention Summary
The aim of the article is to investigate the feasibility of PrEPTECH, a telehealth-based intervention designed to initiate and deliver PrEP medication to young men of color who have sex with men (YMSM). The intervention uses telehealth to streamline procedures, including a mobile-friendly website with automated features and telehealth visits with an infectious diseases physician. The goal is to quickly and conveniently start users on PrEP and transition them to sustainable PrEP providers.
The aim of the article is to describe the development and pilot testing of Project Eban, a Risk Reduction Intervention for HIV-serodiscordant African American couples. The intervention aims to address stigma, psychological distress, barriers to condom use, and lack of self-protection skills in a culturally congruent and relationship-centered manner, enhancing communication and self-protection skills to reduce STI risks while maintaining relationship quality.
The aim of the article is to evaluate the effectiveness of Project PrIDE, a CDC-funded initiative aimed at expanding PrEP services for men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender persons through health department programs. The intervention involved identifying priority populations, referring them to PrEP providers, and increasing provider capacity, with a focus on health equity and addressing barriers to PrEP use.
Stigma Type Addressed
Perceived
Study Population - Recipients
MSM, Transgender/Gender Diverse Individuals, Healthcare Providers/Staff
The "Protege tu Familia: Hazte la Prueba" intervention is a culturally and linguistically sensitive HIV/AIDS prevention and testing program targeting Latino families. Its primary goals are to increase HIV/AIDS knowledge, improve communication about sexual risk, increase intentions to use condoms and test for HIV, and reduce HIV-related stigma. The intervention uses community-based participatory research techniques and involves trained promotores who deliver the program through guided conversations in community settings, providing support for HIV testing referrals.
The paper describes a randomized controlled trial of "Rise," a culturally congruent adherence intervention for HIV-positive Black adults. Rise is conducted in community settings, led by a trained peer counselor, and uses client-centered counseling to address individual-level barriers and provides assistance with structural barriers. The aim is to improve adherence by reducing internalized stigma and medical mistrust.
The study evaluated the "Rise" intervention, a community-based, culturally congruent counseling program aimed at improving antiretroviral therapy adherence among Black/African American adults living with HIV. The intervention included one-on-one counseling sessions using Motivational Interviewing techniques and referrals for social determinants of health, led by a peer counselor. It focused on addressing adherence barriers, stigma, medical mistrust, and resilience within Black communities, with a goal of improving long-term adherence up to 6 months post-intervention.
"Salud es Cultura: ¡Protégete!" (Health Is Culture: Protect Yourself!)
Study & Intervention Summary
The intervention aimed to reduce HIV/AIDS stigma and increase HIV knowledge and risk perception among underserved Latinos in the southwestern U.S. It was led by HIV-positive and HIV-affected community health workers who delivered interactive group-based educational sessions emphasizing positive Latino cultural values and community assets. The intervention targeted 579 Latino adults in El Paso, Texas; San Ysidro, California; and Los Angeles, California, from April to June 2008.
Stigma Type Addressed
Not Specified
Study Population - Recipients
General (Everyone)
Intervention Level
Individual - Intrapersonal (Self)
Intervention Setting Addressed
Community (Faith-based organizations, barber shops, etc), Individual
Stigma intervention for PLHIV experiencing homelessness diagnosed with mental health and substance use disorders by Maskay et al. (2018)
Study & Intervention Summary
The study aimed to assess changes in perceived external stigma among people living with HIV who are experiencing homelessness or unstable housing and have mental health or substance use disorders. The intervention included care coordination, navigation assistance, building trusting relationships, addressing unmet needs, and reducing barriers to care. It was delivered across six geographically diverse sites in the United States, focusing on client-centered care, inclusion, and strategies like motivational interviewing and strength-based counseling to address stigma.
The intervention aims to reduce negative attitudes towards gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals and people living with HIV/AIDS in Latino communities, particularly among youth. It uses a film-based educational approach, developed from stigma and attribution theories, formative research, and community input. The intervention includes a train-the-trainer program, broadcasting, screening, and commercialization to disseminate the film and promote cultural understanding and empathy.
Stigma Type Addressed
Perceived
Study Population - Recipients
Other
Intervention Level
Individual - Intrapersonal (Self)
Intervention Setting Addressed
Educational, Community (Faith-based organizations, barber shops, etc), Network (sexual, etc)
Tech-enhanced stigma intervention for PLHIV with substance use disorders by Batchelder et al. (2020)
Study & Intervention Summary
The intervention is a brief, technology-enhanced, emotion-focused program designed to improve ART adherence and engagement in HIV care among individuals with HIV and substance use disorders. It consists of five individual sessions focusing on metacognitive awareness, cognitive reframing using self-compassion, and setting personalized HIV self-care goals, supplemented by a bi-directional text messaging component. The aim is to address internalized stigma and shame as barriers to HIV self-care, with preliminary results indicating feasibility and acceptability.
Trans Research Informed Communities United in Mobilization for the Prevention of HIV (TRIUMPH)
Study & Intervention Summary
The intervention, Triunfo, was a PrEP demonstration project that co-located HIV services with gender-affirming care in a Federally Qualified Health Center (FQHC). It aimed to increase PrEP uptake among Spanish-speaking transgender Latinas by creating a trusted space, providing comprehensive patient navigation, and offering social support. The intervention included drop-in clinics, monthly groups, and community events, with peer health educators playing a central role in navigation and support.
The weCare intervention study is a social media intervention designed to increase HIV care engagement among young gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM) and transgender women living with HIV. It uses social media platforms to provide targeted messaging to improve care engagement and viral suppression among those newly diagnosed, not linked to care, out of care, or not virally suppressed.
Stigma Type Addressed
Internalized
Study Population - Recipients
General (PLHIV), MSM, Transgender/Gender Diverse Individuals
Intervention Level
Individual - Intrapersonal (Self)
Intervention Setting Addressed
Healthcare, Community (Faith-based organizations, barber shops, etc)
As of 2025, No: California doesn't have HIV criminalization law but does have HIV-specific sentencing enhancements or No HIV-specific law
HATE CRIME DATA COLLECTION LAW
yes
As of 2025, Yes: California requires hate crime data collection
HATE CRIMES BY YEAR
Number of Hate Crimes
0
1000
2000
3000
74
2201
2114
2021
2022
2023
Years
Data view:
Individual Item
Proportion
Have you ever felt that the police refused to protect you because you have sex with men?
10%
Have you ever felt scared to be in public places because you have sex with men?
40%
Have you ever been verbally harassed and felt it was because you have sex with men?
50%
Has someone ever physically hurt you (pushed, shoved, slapped, hit, kicked, choked or otherwise physically hurt you), and do you believe any of these experiences of physical violence was/were related to the fact that you have sex with men?
37%
Have you ever been forced to have sex when you did not want to (by forced, we mean physically forced or coerced to have sex, or penetrated with an object), and do you believe any of these experiences of sexual violence were related to the fact that you have sex with men?
33%
Individual Item
Proportion
Have you ever felt excluded from family activities because you have sex with men?
30%
Have you ever felt that family members have made discriminatory remarks or gossiped about you because you have sex with men?
49%
Individual Item
Proportion
Have you ever felt afraid to go to health care services because you worry someone may treat you poorly because you have sex with men?
25%
Have you ever avoided going to health care services because you worry someone may treat you poorly because you have sex with men?
20%
10.9%
Have you ever felt that the police refused to protect you because you have sex with men?
40.5%
Have you ever felt scared to be in public places because you have sex with men?
49.8%
Have you ever been verbally harassed and felt it was because you have sex with men?
37%
Has someone ever physically hurt you (pushed, shoved, slapped, hit, kicked, choked or otherwise physically hurt you), and do you believe any of these experiences of physical violence was/were related to the fact that you have sex with men?
33%
Have you ever been forced to have sex when you did not want to (by forced, we mean physically forced or coerced to have sex, or penetrated with an object), and do you believe any of these experiences of sexual violence were related to the fact that you have sex with men?
30.1%
Have you ever felt excluded from family activities because you have sex with men?
48.7%
Have you ever felt that family members have made discriminatory remarks or gossiped about you because you have sex with men?
25.1%
Have you ever felt afraid to go to health care services because you worry someone may treat you poorly because you have sex with men?
19.6%
Have you ever avoided going to health care services because you worry someone may treat you poorly because you have sex with men?
